Community-led Actions in Water Management on Greek Islands

Abstract

This paper examines the community-led water management initiatives in the Decentralized Administration of Crete, amidst ongoing governmental efforts to privatize water management to a foreign company. It highlights local reactions and the role locals play in managing their resources, particularly the Water Supply and Sewerage Companies (TOEB). Furthermore, the benefits of collective wealth building, community participation, and solidarity economy for sustainable development are presented. Lastly, recommendations on implementing Collective Wealth Building initiatives in the region of Crete are outlined. 

To reference this paper: 

Kyriacou, E., 2024. Community-led actions in water management on Greek islands: The case of Crete. In Towards Circular: Analysis of the coastal areas of Greece, Italy and Spain. Edited by Skupchenko, J.K. Think Tank AlterContacts. Available at: https://www.altercontacts.org/publications/towards-circular-2024/gr-sd-3 

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14541.04322

Introduction

Across the world, numerous regions are facing disastrous consequences, such as floods, drought, and extreme weather conditions following the rise in temperatures caused by global warming. Countries, islands, and coastal regions in the Mediterranean basin are especially affected by these conditions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that these conditions will only worsen in the next decades, and has described the Mediterranean region as a climate change ‘‘hot spot’’(Tsanis et al., 2011). Indeed, various projections on climate change result in increased severity of droughts in the future (Tramblay et al., 2020), having environmental and socio-economic impact on countries that heavily rely on rain-fed agricultural production and irrigation. 

Water Management in Crete

Water management is severely challenged in Crete, a dry island and the southernmost point of Europe, along with being the largest Greek island, with limited precipitation during the whole year and high temperatures during summer. Agriculture accounts for 78% of the water used, while domestic use represents 21%. Eastern-south Crete often suffers from water scarcity, induced by both climate variability and over-exploitation of groundwater (Chartzoulakis, 2001).

The role of TOEBs in Greece

In Greece, there are more than 450 TOEBs that are vital to cover the water usage needs of millions of hectares of farmland. Such entities are responsible for overseeing and managing pumping stations, dams, canals, pipeline networks, and reservoirs. This is important as bad management could lead to water usage problems for local populations. TOEBs came together in 1958, under the technical support of GOEB (General Organizations for Vascular Improvements), but they were significantly shrunken and left to the local municipalities to handle around the 1990s. Now, without technical support and expertise, TOEBs have to face the difficult task of water management on their own (Δέρκας et al., 2021).  As a result, TOEBs in Crete are struggling to keep up with the high water usage costs. 

Government Plans for Water Management and Local Opposition

Appropriate regulatory frameworks are lacking, and poor cooperation among the members further complicates local people's efforts towards sustainable water management (Tzanakakis et al., 2020). The Greek government has in turn, outsourced the duty of water management to a foreign company called HVA, a Dutch agricultural company and asset manager focusing mainly on Africa and Southeast Asia (HVA International, n.d.) in an attempt to save the water and distribute it amongst locals in Crete more efficiently. 

The representatives of the TOEBs in Lasithi and other parts of Crete mobilized by sending an opposition letter to Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis regarding the unified management system, stating that the problem is related to water quantity rather than water management (Newsroom, 2024). They fear that if the water resources on the island are privatized, then it would likely increase the costs of production of their crops and projects. Economic incentives, such as raising the price of water, might result in demand reduction, but in a population that is mostly agricultural, water is vital beyond household consumption.  Indeed, the impact of water scarcity is multifaceted, with higher costs driving away the young population due to unemployment, slowing down tourism, and making it difficult for locals to access water (Anatolh & Anatolh 2024). 

In summary, effective and well-directed improvements in water and irrigation systems management should be taken into consideration and put on top priority. The locals do not trust foreign agencies taking over agricultural land management, leading to potentially increased prices of water. There is a need to engage scientific experts and consultants who can guide and provide backup to local entities that understand the local specificities of the climate, land morphology, and population needs. Furthermore, while international support may contribute effectively to combatting these problems from the outside - from within, collective cooperation and interventions are imperative to overcoming these challenges. Examples of such successful efforts from the Mediterranean region are listed in later parts of the paper. 

Research Questions

• What plans does the European Union have for addressing water management and drought problems?

• What are the potential impacts of centralizing water management in Crete?

• What is the importance of TOEBs?

• How can we incentivise and train the local population in self-organization?

The plans of the EU for addressing water management and drought problems and Public Support 

Regulatory frameworks need to protect the rights of citizens to affordable water and sustainable irrigation for their agricultural purposes, which many locals in rural areas of Greece depend on for their livelihood. While the EU has several recommendations around sustainable and renewable energy and has provided technical and financial aid to numerous islands in the Mediterranean through the program Clean Energy for European islands, these initiatives do not explicitly include the water scarcity issue on the island of Crete. 

The Clean Energy for EU Islands initiative

The Clean Energy for EU Islands initiative was established in 2017, and the Secretariat in 2018.  Providing technical assistance and capacity-building programs, (Clean Energy Vision to Clean Energy Action, 2024),​​ (Progress on Clean Energy for EU Islands Initiative, 2020)​, the initiative involves local stakeholders in setting goals and strategies tailored to their specific needs, enhancing community engagement and ownership (In Focus: EU Islands and the Clean Energy Transition | Smart Cities Marketplace, n.d.)​. 

The Clean Energy for EU Islands initiative generally supports the creation of energy and water cooperatives, where local residents participate directly in the management and benefit from renewable resources, through supporting organizations like FAGA; a Portuguese municipal company with a specific mission to protect sustainable water management (FAGAR - Faro, Gestao De Águas E Resíduos, E.M, n.d.). Community-centered models ensure that the needs and interests of local populations are prioritized, which also creates a sense of accountability and responsibility. Local officials in Crete also underscore the importance of cooperation with community leaders and members of TOEB who have specific knowledge on the ground (Newsroom, 2024). However, in the case of Crete, technical assistance does not focus on water scarcity or management, but solely on biogas treatment. Such initiatives must account for efforts of third parties to commodify water, which may hinder any sustainability efforts, and look at the problem in a broader context which includes socioeconomic and sociopolitical factors. By eliminating silos between organizations, valuable cooperation and innovation may be the outcome of connecting these supporting entities across European islands.

Current Policies and EU Regulatory Bodies

Water regulation in the EU focuses on questions of access to fair and clean water, where it mainly looks at the domestic level to observe the implementation of water-related legislation. Hence, it gives room for governments to decide, which most practically puts Crete and other areas under the mercy of the Greek state and private corporations for privatization  (EU Commission "failed to Properly Address" Citizens' Water Privatisation Fears, 2020). The EU must draft strong recommendations for the preservation of publicly owned goods, incorporate officials into the conversation, and involve local stakeholders in the decision-making.

European Support for Publicly Owned Water Resources 

Across Europe, movements in countries like Italy, Greece, Portugal, and Ireland, have successfully advocated for keeping water services public, emphasizing water as a human right and the need for participatory democracy in water management decisions (Todorović, 2024), (The Fight Against Water Privatisation in Europe, 2021). This corresponds with wider EU goals of sustainability, climate action, social equity, and supports the UN's Sustainable Development Goals. In fact, during the Water Conference held in New York in 2023, UN experts particularly stressed the importance of not viewing water as a commodity or a business opportunity, which would mean that lower-income consumers would not have equal access (UN 2023 Water Conference, n.d.). Moreover, the European Economic Social Committee (EESC), has consistently opposed the privatization of water, as the privileges granted raise costs and lower access to aquatic systems for socioeconomically vulnerable populations. (No More Water Privatisation, EESC, 2018)​. 

Apart from institutional support, civil society also mobilized towards sustainable access to water. Under the European Parliament, there is a procedure known as the ''European citizens' initiative'' where EU citizens submit questions for the commission's agenda. The Right2Water initiative against privatization gathered more than 1.8 million signatures in 2013, which requested to stop the liberalization of water (No More Water Privatisation, EESC, 2018)​.

The Context of Greece

Up until the middle of the 1970s, water supply management was largely publicly owned, but trends reveal that private investments are triggered after a period of economic instability and crisis (Gialis et al., 2011). Indeed, 1973 saw a shift towards private participation reflected in reports and directives from international organizations such as the World Bank, in the form of private investments and expansion of bottled water, among other things (World Bank, 2006).

In Greece, as a response to the debt crisis, the government had agreed to privatize and sell water utilities to international investors, but in 2014 the Council of State ruled that such a deal would be considered unconstitutional (Todorović, 2024). After more than a decade of resisting this deal, Greek trade unionists and activists managed to gain direct state control of the Athens Water Supply and Sewage Co. (EYDAP) and Thessaloniki Water Supply and Sewage Co. (EYATH). Despite public upheaval, the government moved to open the way for the privatization of water utilities in Thessaly after the devastating floods in September 2023, finding many opposition leaders worried that the government is slowly turning a social good into a commodity. Water management was given to the hands of the Dutch company HVA, managing profits of multinational clients (Λιβιτσάνος, 2024). A few months later, in April 2024, the same proposal reached farmers in Crete. 

The potential impacts of centralizing water management

Centralizing water management had already begun in the region of Thessaly (Papandreou, n.d.), by HVA International, the same company hired to collect water consumption data from all Water Utilities Authorities in Crete and effectively dissipate TOEBs in Crete in response to water shortages and project mismanagement (Newsroom, 2024).

HVA was brought to the picture in 2023, after the European Commission referred Greece to the European Court of Justice (ECJ), for not completing the revision of its river basin and flood risk management plans. Greece sought advice from HVA International to repair flood damage in Thessaly and handle the financial difficulties that were part of the aftermath. HVA's report suggested transitioning to less water-intensive crops and transferring water from the Acheloos River (Papandreou, n.d.). The Greek government supported and praised HVA's report, although not bound to its recommendations. This new system of handing over responsibilities, previously managed by state agencies and local and regional administration into an anonymous company, promotes a cost-benefit management approach above all, and disregards the need for specific on-the-ground expertise not only of the geomorphology and climate of the region but also of the unique needs of the local communities. 

Importance of TOEB 

The Land Improvement Organizations (TOEB) were established in 1958 and are public benefit and agricultural cooperative organizations. They are also non-profit. TOEBs cover their expenses through contributions from their members, who are democratically elected. One of the key goals of these organizations is to make water for irrigation affordable, in a way that does not burden the state budget. Their work spans over a big population and land coverage. For example, the TOEB Ierapetra, which is one of Greece's largest local land improvement organizations, has over 6,500 users and serves  45,000 acres of irrigated land since 1986 (OCTO NETWORKS, n.d.). TOEB Ierapetra has been especially vocal against the invitation of HVA into the island. Since water in Crete is scarce, organizations such as TOEB play a very important role in managing these water resources efficiently to support the local population and are very protective of their members. Evidently, community-owned water and irrigation resources in Crete are already in place with a large number of members and land they cover and correspond to the Clean Energy for EU Islands Initiative, providing a solid basis for technical assistance and international support. 

However, with the lack of technical support and staff capability, continuous deterioration from climate change, and droughts, much of the TOEB's projects are in non-functioning, abandoned, and poor conditions, while the cost of living and water usage are on the rise. As the Greek government initiates the privatization of irrigation water through the dissolution of TOEBs and the formation of a unified water management agency in Crete, it finds itself in opposition with all the TOEBs in Lasithi and its surrounding areas. Locals criticize this decision for introducing private economic criteria into water management, while at the same time disregarding local dynamics and expertise (Anatolh & Anatolh, 2024). The inclusion and prioritization of sustainable water management in European sustainability agendas is imperative and needs to be urgently safeguarded in the case of Crete.

Local Responses around Crete

Local stakeholders, TOEB presidents and representatives raised their concerns against the HVA that will manage their resources, expressing their doubts about the lack of ground knowledge from an international foreign entity. They fear that foreign agency involvement has the danger of privatizing essential natural resources and skyrocketing usage prices since it would be unregulated. Indeed, research suggests (Hall et al. (2005) that enormous prices and profits are the most important arguments against privatization. TOEB presidents from some of the municipalities of Crete, including Heraklion and Chania, stated: ‘‘We will resist the dismantling and surrender of our irrigation project and infrastructure worth millions’’ (Newsroom, 2024), while a member of the Greek Parliament for Heraklion Eleni Vatsina also voiced her concerns to the Parliament: ‘‘Managements of the TOEBs take care of their operation and the management of their income and expenses without pay, while they are literally close to the irrigation project, knowing the real needs of the producers and actively monitoring its operation’’. 

The president of TOEB of Lasithi, Paxeia Ammos Kostas Plakantonakis, reported that all the eleven TOEBs can come together in the region and express their strong disapproval of the unified water management plan. Water Utility Authorities of Crete issued a joint statement to the prime minister claiming that TOEBs are healthy bodies of locals managing irrigation waters without any profitability policy or agenda: (Anatolh & Anatolh, 2024): ‘‘We consider the State's plans to assign irrigation infrastructure and networks to anonymous companies as unacceptable. Additional burdens on irrigation water prices will render production unprofitable, lead to crop abandonment, necessitate youth migration, exacerbate demographic problems, and ultimately cause desertification. We strive to keep production costs low’’ (Anatolh & Anatolh, 2024). 

Indeed, the socio-economic dimensions that water privatization poses to various parameters of island life seem to deeply concern the local people, from domestic and agricultural water use to tourism and, finally, to youth unemployment. According to President Kostas Plakantonakis, most TOEBs do not have financial problems; however, they certainly face operational and maintenance expenses needed for sustaining low production costs. He mentioned that methods applied in the region of Thessaly wouldn't be appropriate in Crete because those were two very different regions with different challenges (Hxo News, 2024), 

As mentioned in DiaNeosis (2021), many of the projects in Crete, in general, are not in working condition and need to be replaced with new ones. The lack of available water due to stagnation coupled with inadequate infrastructure is troubling local farmers. Specifically in Lasithi, the Access Canal of the Bramiano dam, a project that started in 2023 and was interrupted due to COVID, has been stalled for another several months due to the inability to receive the second shipment of pipes, and the project is not expected to be completed before the end of 2025 (Λειψυδρία, Φράγμα Μπραμιανών Και Μεθοδεύσεις Κατάργησης ΟΕΒ-ΤΟΕΒ Ανησυχούν Αγρότες Στην Ιεράπετρα, n.d.). A few regions in the Lasithi municipality are at risk of flood due to the withdrawal of the construction of anti-flood works in Gra Lygia and Myrtos. Manolis Papadakis, the president of TOEB Ierapetras, noted that a contractor was assigned through a competition to take over these projects, along with the Bramiano reservoir, but as the presidential elections passed in the mainland, the elected officials did not fulfill their duties, and the president feels that the prefecture of Lasithi is forgotten. 

Locals are worried about having enough water to irrigate their crops and for domestic consumption, which would have been solved had the projects been implemented. At the moment, the level in the dam is constantly falling due to lack of water and the basin is less than 10 million square meters of water, Mr. Papadakis noted, among other things (Hxo News, 2024). Such failures are widely seen as intentional by the Greek government by Greek people and government critics. The state, as Hall et, al., (2005) put it, has stakes in various water companies, and it's only natural that they would be concerned with promoting their profitability above all. It is not their own inability or mismanagement that prevents them from materializing the plans of TOEBs, but inadequate governmental support and unfulfilled promises for projects that are vital to the local population. To combat the challenges of these local entities, rather than centralizing and handing the irrigation management over to a foreign entity, an alternative proposal is to build on the strengths of the already tightly-knit and well-organized unions of farmers, transforming existing OEBs into irrigation cooperatives, allowing participation in investment programs. 

Public Ownership and Cooperatives

Cooperatives are known as autonomous associations formed voluntarily by people to address their common economic, cultural and social needs based on democratic cooperation (International Cooperative Alliance | ICA, 2024). By creating horizontal relationships between the market and the rural populations, it is a mixed economic system that flattens strong hierarchical dynamics, which is a fertile ground for exploitation. Agricultural cooperatives are considered important because, from the side of the workers, they are the only structure for gaining bargaining power for various small producers (Kalogiannidis, 2020). 

Cooperatives in the Olive Oil Industry of Spain

Spain often faces the same challenges as other Mediterranean countries, namely water scarcity and economic difficulties (García-Vila et al., 2008). Despite that, social economy models in agriculture are dominating the olive oil industry in the producing areas of Spain. A significant share of the business is based on social economy, with a cooperativization rate of 70%. Farmers in Spain produce around 51% of the olive oil worldwide, without much intervention from investors and external management (“Dimensions of Social Innovation in Agricultural Cooperatives: A Model Applied to the Spanish Olive Oil Industry,” 2021). 

Community Wealth Lessons from Italy

Community Wealth Building (CWB) is a global model, very successfully implemented in Italy with a strong cooperative sector, and it aims to benefit workers and the local community economically (Barnes et al., 2020). According to Ammirato (2024), cooperatives distribute value differently than capitalist firms. Publicly traded companies typically give 70–85 percent of profits to shareholders, while Italian cooperatives allocate 68.3 percent to labor, only 6.9 percent to private capital, and 20.8 percent to community or enterprise capital. Labour, therefore, acquires the largest percentage of the profits. In addition, research shows cooperatives have a different turnout during economic downturns, reallocating labor among members and reducing hours rather than cutting down on jobs. This shows greater resilience in times of financial instability.

Participation is a key component of CWB. Barnes et al. (2020), emphasized that disadvantaged individuals are active contributors with valuable skills, capabilities, and ideas. People hold the right to partake in wealth production and sharing, with members holding the majority of board positions. Another positive impact of collective wealth building is that these types of cooperative movements can tackle youth unemployment. For instance, a cooperative federation introduced a program encouraging unemployed young people to form cooperatives. Youth migration due to lack of employment is one of the many concerns TOEBs regional unit in Lasithi mentioned, as a result of the potential high prices that HVA’s involvement in Crete would bring (Anatolh & Anatolh). 

Lessons from sustainable cooperative actions beyond agriculture in Mediterranean regions such as Lebanon, Turkey, and Morocco

Daddi et al. (2014) planned an intervention enhancing sustainable development in Marrakech (Morocco), Sin el Fil (Lebanon), and Bodrum (Turkey), regions that have similar climates and weather conditions as Crete. Marrakech, Morocco, focused on sustainable tourism and waste management. They improved the sustainability practices at key cultural heritage sites by integrating better waste management and visitor management strategies. In addition, recycling programs were offered, including community-based recycling centers and educational campaigns to promote waste separation and recycling. This was achieved through a collaboration of local tourism authorities and waste management services/ training sessions for staff and volunteers at heritage sites to manage waste and promote sustainability​ (Sustainability, n.d.).

Sin el Fil, Lebanon, focused on urban green spaces and energy efficiency. Community gardens were placed in urban areas to increase green space, improve air quality, and provide recreational areas for residents. Energy audits were conducted and retrofitted buildings with energy-efficient technologies, such as improved insulation, energy-efficient lighting, and solar panels. Partnership with local environmental NGOs and municipal authorities/ community workshops to involve residents in the creation and maintenance of gardens and training programs for building managers on energy efficiency practices were implemented​ (Sustainability, n.d.).

Bodrum, Turkey, focused on coastal management and sustainable fishing. Marine Protected Areas were established as zones where fishing and other extractive activities are restricted to preserve marine biodiversity. This happened in coordination with local fishing communities and environmental groups/ educational programs for fishermen on sustainable practices and the long-term benefits of conservation efforts​ (Sustainability, n.d.). No for-profit or strict governmental control was necessary for these communities to come together and achieve significant improvement and innovation in the areas of sustainability and environmental protection 

Water Saving Practices on the Island of Lipsi, Greece

In Greece, in the small island of Lipsi residents collaborated with external organizations aiming to improve water accessibility. Until 2018, Lipsi depended on costly and poor-quality water transported from other islands at 15 euros per cubic meter. This is about 30 times more than the cost of water in Greece’s capital, Athens. GWP-Med launched a new water-saving initiative in partnership with Reckitt Benckiser’s Finish dishwater detergent. GWP (Global Water Partnership - Mediterranean) promotes action and facilitates dialogue on Integrated Water Resources Management and provides technical support (GWP Mediterranean - GWP, 2024). 

With the ‘‘Water in Our Hands’’ Initiative, 250 water-saving kits were distributed to households and hotels, with tools like aerators to reduce water consumption without lowering water flow. Public events and quizzes were held to educate residents on water-saving practices. Through community engagement, the island collectively has aimed to save 1.5 liters of water in one year, with the initiative spreading over onto other small islands facing water scarcity issues, such as Agios Efstratios, Oinousses, and Psara (GWP Mediterranean - GWP, 2024).

The ways to incentivise and train the local population in self-organization

It is important to note that Greek TOEBs face unique challenges- and cooperatives alike; have to face the hostile external institutional environment and the lack of financial support in the last few decades (Papageorgiou, 2010). Regions in the Mediterranean with similar conditions provide inspiration as they have found new ways to self-manage their resources and make practices and tourism more sustainable through collaboration, help from experts, and innovation. Needless to say, the TOEBs of Crete do not need explicit incentives to self-organize against privatization, seeing as they already are very vocal about their objection. Rather, they need public and international support and advocacy, a platform to voice their challenges, and regulatory reforms. 

Conclusion

It is important to note that water was not always treated as a commodity. In order to deconstruct the current management model, attention must be brought to the wider globalization effects, regulations that allowed for management centered around demand, and historic socio-economic patterns (Gialis et al., 2011). Community-led activities in Crete have emphasized the need for local mobilization and collaboration around the issue of water scarcity on the island. Currently, the Greek government is moving to consolidate water management services and terminate the functions and role of TOEBs; giving the power to HVA’s foreign interests, making it inaccessible to the locals. For Crete, Greece’s largest island where water is scarce and used predominantly for agriculture, this news is devastating. 

Local administration officials and representatives of TOEBs from multiple municipalities are unified and determined to maintain their right to independently manage their resources. It is very important to invest in local capabilities and empower the communities to address their challenges. Crete can draw inspiration from successful cooperatives in the Mediterranean region, such as Spain, Italy, Morocco, and Turkey, building on grassroot cooperation (Daddi et al., 2014). Water in these cases is internally regulated through democratic processes, with the goal of representing the interests of local households. 

To sustainably manage the community’s resources, technical training and capacity-building programs in water management must be implemented at the operational level for TOEB members. Such initiatives can even be linked with state support, or associated with agricultural and sustainability-related NGOs, similar to the case of Lipsi, in Greece (GWP Mediterranean - GWP, 2024).  It is important to search for and maintain partnerships with local and/or international universities and research institutions with expertise in these areas. Searching for, and maintaining partnerships is an essential component that will lead these actions. For example, universities and research institutions can be brought in for their expertise and collaboration. 

At a community level, key steps include leveraging the unified nature of Crete’s TOEBs by carrying out interviews and public awareness campaigns with local stakeholders; outlining the risks of privatization, and calling for participation in educational programs. What is important is to create a sense of collective responsibility, where everyone is involved in the decision-making process. Another key step is to address the infrastructure. Since one of the major challenges that TOEBs in Crete are faced with, is the deterioration and abandonment of their water projects, the community and their partners need to put repair and maintenance at the top of the priorities and have a timely and detailed schedule of all the activities. . Thus, directing any financial support to projects such as the Bramiano dam access canal and developing clear and straightforward management plans is paramount,

Ultimately, the discussion must be centered around policy and regulatory frameworks. Naturally, the pressing issue of the TOEBs is the lack of regulatory frameworks that will cushion them against dissolution. Local and international communities should continue to strategically advocate for regulatory frameworks that retain public ownership of water resources; both at the national and at the European level.

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