The State of Sustainable Mobility on a Greek Island 

Abstract

Spetses, a small island located in Attica, Greece, has attracted significant attention from academics and media alike owing to its near-total ban on the usage of cars. While this regulatory move represents a positive step towards sustainable mobility, evidence suggests that cars have been replaced by other personal motorised vehicles - namely motorbikes and mopeds - which pose new problems regarding traffic, noise pollution, emission production and safety. Conceptualising sustainable mobility as a multidisciplinary endeavour, necessarily dependent on the cooperation of numerous stakeholders, this report seeks to map the current transport regime on the island of Spetses through a qualitative analysis of primary and secondary evidence. A review of existing literature and sampled social media discourse suggests that mobility practices on Spetses are shaped by both logistical and regulatory constraints, owing to its uneven topology and inconsistent enforcement of the existing traffic rules. The paper concludes that any efforts to further the transition to sustainable mobility will require a collective participation approach, whereby robust public consultation of residents, businesses and administration officials is paired with responsive governance by the municipality. 

To reference this paper: 

Shewan, M., 2024. The state of sustainable mobility on a Greek island: The case of Spetses. In Towards Circular: Analysis of the coastal areas of Greece, Italy and Spain. Edited by Skupchenko, J.K. Think Tank AlterContacts. Available at: https://www.altercontacts.org/publications/towards-circular-2024/gr-sd-6 

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.35512.56324

Introduction

Fostering sustainable mobility has become a central focus of sustainable development activities in recent decades. Defined by the EU in 2001 as an effort to ensure that “the access and development needs of individuals, companies and societies to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem health,” sustainable transport initiatives seek to decouple human mobility from environmental and social harm (Thaller et al., 2021: 2) Motorised transport currently makes up a significant portion of global emissions; a quarter in 2016 (Holden, Giplin and Banister, 2019: 1967); and therefore remains a pressing environmental concern. While much of the literature regarding sustainable mobility has focused on the technological aspect of transition — for example, on the feasibility of electronic transport (Boglietti, Barabino and Maternini, 2021) or the design and development of reliable infrastructure such as smart grids (Al-Hanahi et al., 2022) — it is important to note that transport and mobility are embedded in the social fabric of any given community and is something that must be taken directly into account when devising a sustainable mobility plan (Bannister, 2008). As several researchers have argued in kind (Attard, 2006; Köhler et al., 2009; Gallo and Marinelli, 2020; Bratitsis et al., 2023), it is, therefore, crucial that sustainable mobility initiatives are not only technically feasible but also effectively implemented. This requires a thorough understanding of the social, geographic and economic circumstances of the communities for which they are intended and a tailored approach to their implementation.

The EU’s Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) have been designed and enforced in cities large and small in recent years. They consist of tailored blueprints for the shift to sustainable transport within each locality, aiming to foster urban mobility that is both socially and environmentally sustainable and are subject to ongoing monitoring by the European Commission. Considering that over 90% of road vehicles in the EU are powered by fossil fuels (Transport & Environment, 2024), a growing number of cities in Europe have taken steps to reduce their reliance on motorised vehicles, from outright banning of cars to the introduction of low-emission zones, carbon taxes and incentives to switch to electric vehicles (Gallo and Marinelli, 2020).

Several researchers have suggested that small islands may be amongst the most well-placed to transition toward sustainable mobility (Soomauroo, Blechinger and Creutzig, 2020; Pacheco et al., 2022). Soomauroo, Blechinger and Creutzig (2020: 1435) posit that the “insular topologies” and isolated nature of small islands present a particular opportunity for the development of shared transport initiatives and electromobility infrastructure. Small islands are highly vulnerable to risks associated with climate change despite their proportionally minuscule contribution to emission production. Rising sea levels and adverse impacts on supply chains — owing to their heavy reliance on imports — are, therefore, both a growing cause for concern. Moreover, small islands tend to foster the kind of tight-knit community that is necessary for executing successful sustainable development initiatives (Milne, Kendrick and Cassidy, 2023).

Building on the SUMP concept, CIVENET Greece-Cyprus proposed an adapted approach to sustainability on islands: Sustainable Island Mobility Plans (SIMPs). Designed to meet the unique needs of small and medium-sized islands, each often highly reliant on seasonal tourism, SIMPs would ideally provide flexible mobility solutions capable of serving their localities both on and off-season. Communal mobility schemes supported by smart charging infrastructure are envisioned as being central to its execution, as is consultation with the residential community (Spyridonidou and Anagnostopoulos, 2017). While still in the early years of development, promising progress has been seen in the islands of Naxos, Kea and Sifnos — some of the first Greek islands to embrace the model (European Commission, 2020). 

In recent years, growing interest in the prospect of sustainable mobility on small islands has fostered much promising research on the technological feasibility of such a transition. In their comparative analysis of Malta and Cyprus, Bugeja, Azzopardi and Loizou (2023) emphasise the importance of knowledge sharing between small island states in their efforts to roll out electromobility. Their analysis highlights the importance of developing renewable energy storage and reliable, accessible charging infrastructure to establish transport electrification — a step towards achieving the goal of eradicating fossil-fueled transport by 2035 outlined by the EU. Drawing from the work of the ELECTRON lab in Rhodes, Bratitsis et al (2023) demonstrate how a Viable System Model could be applied to the storage and organisation of renewable energy on small islands, increasing the feasibility of electromobility, considering the variable and often inconsistent nature of renewable energy production in remote locations. Al-Hanahi et al. (2022) developed a potential smart charging system that could adapt to differing levels of demand, such that it might support the electrification of heavy-duty vehicles as well as lighter-duty passenger vehicles intended for personal use. These projects highlight the increasing feasibility of electromobility solutions on small islands from a technical point of view. However, as previously noted, any plan for sustainable mobility must account for the specific environmental and socio-political contexts in which they are implemented in order to prove effective. As Attard (2006) argues in her analysis of sustainable transport in Malta, it is not primarily the geography but the effective implementation of policy that will determine the extent to which small islands can successfully foster sustainable mobility in the long term.

Currently, much of the literature regarding sustainable transport on small islands tends to focus on efforts to foster sustainable tourism, particularly by reforming travel and tourism practices in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (Zolfani et al., 2015; Tsoutsos, 2022). However, it is also crucial to consider the experiences and viewpoints of the residential communities, whose support and input are significant factors in ensuring the success of such initiatives. When studying the attitudes of tourists and residents of the small Italian island Ischia, Maltese et al. (2021) found that residents were significantly more likely to have heard of sustainable mobility than visitors and tourists (72% to 43%) and were also primarily concerned with traffic congestion, waste management and pollution in relation to mobility. That residents have a greater vested interest in the long-term health of their local environment is to be expected and further indicates the need to approach sustainable mobility from the perspective of permanent residents. In 2018, the Scottish Rural and Islands Transport Community was established to bring together different stakeholders to assess and address the transport challenges faced specifically by these communities. Through exercises in knowledge sharing and bottom-up planning, this initiative sought to unite residents, visitors, employers - and various other stakeholders - in the planning process (Milne, Kendrick and Cassidy, 2023).

Methodology

In line with recent calls for greater qualitative input in the field of sustainable mobility (Rau and Scheiner, 2020), this paper utilises a qualitative analysis of both primary and secondary data to establish a clearer picture of the current transport regime on Spetses. Such analysis will highlight, more specifically, the geographic, economic and socio-political dynamics that will inevitably factor into any future sustainable mobility planning on the island. 

Secondary sources were compiled through a review of existing studies of transport literature on Spetses, identified using the Google Scholar search engine. Primary data were compiled through a number of sources, including governmental websites and documents published by the Municipality of Spetses, with the addition of locally affiliated Facebook groups, individual posts, comments and blog posts. Where documents and primary data were available only in Greek, translation software was utilised in order to ensure a sample of the material was as wide as possible. Both the validity and reliability of the sample, however, were inevitably impacted by the limited available data online and language barrier.

Transport in Spetses

Contemporary research on Spetses itself is relatively sparse. While its car ban has generated some scholarly and media attention, academic interest in its mobility regime has largely focused on its implications for tourism (Vassi and Christodoulopoulou, 2014). Travelling by car is prohibited on the island, although permanent residents - of a year or longer — are permitted to own cars as long as they remain parked. Crossings by cars from Kosta on the Greek mainland are allowed only at set times of the day — rules that are subject to change during busier tourist periods (Spetses.gov, 2022a). The use of motorbikes on the coastal road is also prohibited between 7 pm and 2 am in an effort to reduce noise pollution and the risk of injury, considering the lack of visibility on Spetses’ roads. Heavy-duty vehicles — used to transport construction materials and for waste management — are also permitted to enter and exit the island at scheduled times (Petala, 2012). Updates or changes to these schedules, for example, during the Holy Week around Easter, are detailed on the Municipality’s website (Spetses.gov, 2022a). 

Bakogiannis and Siti (2013) sought to investigate the prospect of fostering sustainable mobility on Spetses in the context of the car ban and the subsequent wide circulation of motorcycles as a result. They found that the presence of motorized personal vehicles, namely motorcycles, was an ongoing challenge faced by the community in the wake of the car ban. Their suggestions for reform of Spetses’ mobility landscape are insightful, including the possibility of expanding waterborne transport around the circumference of the island for greater ease of tourist mobility. In addition, Vassi and Christodoulopoulou (2014) consider ways that tourism could be promoted in Spetses, respecting the car ban while also emphasising the need to promote the well-being of residents and incorporate their contributions to the planning process. They make an important point that the mobility needs of tourists and residents are likely to be different. While tourists may be content with using transport as a means of leisure, residents are more likely to consider transport as a means to an end. This perhaps explains the dominance of personal motorised vehicles, those which are commonly associated with noise pollution and disruption of the natural environment. In addition, Petala’s (2012) extensive review of the transport situation in Spetses provides a valuable overview of the regulatory framework of transport on the island, as well as a rare insight into the views and experiences of different stakeholders within the resident population, from businesses to pedestrians. She concludes by suggesting ways in which the traffic situation could be improved, with the aim of promoting the well-being of both the environment and the community.

This article builds on the aforementioned research to consider transport in Spetses from the perspective of sustainable mobility. It aims to take stock of the current obstacles to sustainable mobility and explore ways in which sustainable mobility could be achieved, with residents' experiences at the forefront of the plan.

Barriers to Sustainable Mobility

Spetses’s geographic features, in particular, the complex topography of its most urban areas, is a significant factor that must be taken into account in any potential transport planning. Spetses is a small island, with 3,748 permanent residents recorded in the 2021 Greek census, down from 4,027 in 2011 (Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2023: 44). Much of the island is covered with forestry and agricultural land, meaning the residential density of the island is relatively high, exacerbating problems of congestion. Most traffic is therefore concentrated around the historic city of Spetses and the Dapia port, the main point of crossing from Kosta on mainland Greece (Spetses.gov, 2022a). As has been widely observed by researchers, the uneven terrain, narrow streets ranging from three to seven meters in width, and significant variation in elevation (the highest point being 291m above sea level) make traditional forms of transport more difficult (Petala, 2012: 70). Moreover, travelling through the city is made complex by constant sharp turns, numerous steep inclines. As Bakogiannis and Siti (2013) note, Spetses was clearly not designed to accommodate motor transport.

While many residents utilise motorcycles and mopeds as an alternative to the car, this unpredictable, un-uniform topography presents a heightened risk when engaging in any form of motorised transport (Vassi and Christodoulopoulou, 2014). Although official figures regarding accidents were unavailable, there is significant evidence to suggest that this has sparked feelings of unease amongst pedestrians concerned with their safety. Anecdotal evidence illustrates that personalised motorised vehicles, in particular, motorbikes, are regularly used by minors on the way two and from school. Moreover, research by Kotoula, Bortzoris and Morfoulalki (2017) highlights the substantial risks associated with poorly managed school transport and finds a need for reform of the school transport system across Greece.

Contributions to Facebook groups associated with Spetses, specifically the Septses Report and SpetsesVoice, regularly feature comments lamenting unsafe road conditions and driving culture on the island. For example, in one post on Spetses Voice, on the 17th of June 2022, a supposed resident described the “hell” that they had experienced while trying to navigate the island on crutches. They emphasise that “older people who can’t see well, who can’t hear well” were also particularly at risk of injury. Many comments on said post voiced their agreement: two fearing for the safety of their grandchildren and one claiming that “the problem is getting worse every year” with regard to pedestrian safety. Evidently, the uneven terrain and complex topography of Spetses’ medieval settlement currently presents an obstacle to accessibility for mobility-challenged individuals and members of the community — a factor which any future transport planning will have to take into account.

Beyond the geographic limitations, there are also potential financial barriers to adopting sustainable transport solutions. Bakogiannis and Siti (2013) note that the widespread use of motorcycles across Spetses is likely linked to the fact that electric alternatives are expensive and would require significant investment in infrastructure. Moreover, as Kaldellis and Zafirakis (2020) illustrate, the Aegean islands face the obstacle of poor coverage of renewable energy sources. From a speculative perspective, any potential energy infrastructure — most likely a smart grid — would have to be able to adapt to the growing and waning demand that would inevitably occur in and out of the tourist season (Al-Hanahi et al., 2022). 

This is not to say that the necessary reforms could not be made. In the past few years, an ongoing municipality-funded project has sought to renovate eighteen public areas, including increased lighting for urban zones and improved rainwater management (New Metropolitan Attiki, 2022). In addition, a recent survey was circulated by the municipality on social media, asking Spetses residents to detail their concerns and proposals for transport on the island (Spetses.gov, 2022b). It is a positive sign that residents’ views will be considered in future urban planning. More broadly, the Greek government’s website suggests that funding is available for local areas that wish to implement electromobility initiatives (Ministry of Environment and Energy, 2023). These developments provide promising evidence of political will both to further the necessary transition towards sustainable transport through substantial investment and to do so with primary consideration for the experiences and wishes of Spetses’ residents.

The primary data, namely social media posts, indicated a general feeling of discontent amongst residents regarding the way that existing transport regulations were enforced by the relevant authorities and the municipality more broadly. In line with evidence collated by Petala in 2012, the enforcement of the car ban appeared inconsistent, with some reporting that permits — those which are supposed to be reserved for permanent residents of the island — were being issued improperly at the discretion of the Deputy Mayor’s office. Distrust of authorities presents a potential barrier to the design, adoption and, ultimately, effectiveness of sustainable mobility planning. Rather, as Ibeas et al. (2011) illustrate, citizen involvement in the preliminary stages of sustainable mobility planning is one way to ensure strong links between political representatives and civil society. They propose, for instance, the use of mega focus groups (MFGs) of around 40-60 people to ensure that different sectors of the population are appropriately represented in any sustainable planning.

While social media comments are evidently limited in their validity, as it is impossible to verify the authenticity of their authors as residents of the island, nor how widespread these views are across the residential population, such feelings have been observed in secondary literature as well. Petala (2012) engaged in substantial primary research regarding the traffic situation on Spetses and found that discontent amongst residents was significant. In her consultation with the Union of Spetses, the Spetses Women’s Association, the Spetses Trade and Craft Association and the Association of Parents of the high school of Spetson, she found a widespread feeling that regulations were not being enforced accurately or at all. Her research suggested that 80 percent of road accidents on Spetses occurred from motorbikes (Petala, 2012: 105). Even though we have not been able to verify this figure, recent local news stories detail incidents involving motorbikes (News Break, 2023; Flash, 2024), while Facebook posts and comments seem to reveal residents’ concerns over safety in relation to motorbikes and mopeds.

Overall, drawing on the purported experiences of residents, it seems that there may be a lack of monitoring of the traffic situation by the authorities altogether, resulting in a heightened likelihood of traffic violations being committed by drivers, people driving without the appropriate insurance, licenses, permits or protective gear, and even potentially under the influence of alcohol. Suggestions from residents included improving bus links, greater frequency and coverage of public transport, greater restriction of heavy-duty vehicles and a greater presence of the authorities in general (Petala, 2012) in order to enhance the safety and sustainability of traffic on Spetses.

Conclusion

The prospect of expanding electromobility with the aim of furthering sustainable mobility on small islands is very promising. As illustrated above, a number of studies have detailed the feasibility of adopting smart grids, energy-efficient charging stations and shared community programmes, to this end (Köhler et al., 2009; Spyridonidou and Anagnostopoulos, 2017; Al Hanahi et al., 2022; Tsoutsos, 2022; Bratitsis et al., 2023). Further research or planning for sustainable mobility on Spetses would benefit from adopting a community-centered approach to ensure that residents are as aligned as possible with any potential changes. Both small and large focus groups would likely prove effective in ensuring that a multitude of residential stakeholders’ views were taken into account (Ibeas, dell’Olio and Montequín, 2011; Pacheco et al., 2022). 

It is important to note that such solutions need not be overly technological or expensive. Several researchers note the value of walking and cycling on regular bicycles as a means of promoting sustainable mobility practices (Gallo and Marinelli, 2020). In line with recommendations Petala made in 2012, there were several bicycle rentals established on Spetses that promote cycling across the island population, including educating school children on traffic safety. The evidence suggests that the residents across the island are highly invested in the transport regime on Spetses and, according to the data compiled from social media, have many ideas regarding how the system might be improved. Building on such enthusiasm by including residents in any further research or planning would prove a positive step towards achieving sustainable mobility on the island of Spetses, as well as other small islands facing similar environmental and logistical challenges. 

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