Utilizing Circular Economy Practices to Combat Depopulation

Abstract

The decline of rural populations in Europe, notably in Italy, Spain, and Greece, poses severe socio-economic and environmental challenges. Rural areas, comprising 44.7 percent of the EU's territory, are left behind by younger generations seeking better economic opportunities in urban centers, leading to economic stagnation and cultural erosion. This article reviews the case of Antikythera, a small isolated Greek island, to explore the potential of circular economy practices to revitalize such communities. Antikythera, historically a significant naval base, has seen its population plummet from 68 people in 2011 to 39 in 2021, with an aging demographic exacerbating its decline. Previous resettlement efforts, including governmental and church initiatives, faced practical challenges such as inadequate housing and infrastructure. This article argues that adopting a circular economy model can address these challenges. By promoting local production and renewable energy, Antikythera can improve self-sufficiency and attract new residents and investments. This approach is vital for preserving cultural heritage and fostering sustainable development in isolated rural regions.

To reference this paper: 

Kokkalia, V., 2024. Utilizing circular economy practices to combat depopulation: The case of Antikythera, Greece. In Towards Circular: Analysis of the coastal areas of Greece, Italy and Spain. Edited by Skupchenko, J.K. Think Tank AlterContacts. Available at: https://www.altercontacts.org/publications/towards-circular-2024/gr-sd-7 

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22090.79043

Introduction

The decline of the local population in rural areas has been highlighted as an increasingly worrying trend in many regions of Europe. Particularly in countries such as Italy, Spain and Greece, where increasing urbanisation and out-migration due to a variety of socio-economic and environmental drivers have left small communities struggling to survive (Eurostat, 2023; Daglio & Kousidi, 2021). Rural areas, which make up an impressive 44.7 percent of the EU's territory and once supported a significant proportion of the population (Eurostat, 2023), are being left behind by younger generations who prefer to move to urban centres in search of greater economic and educational opportunities. This demographic shift further exacerbates the current challenges affecting rural areas, making it more difficult to attract new residents or business investment, threatening the very existence of local communities. These areas account for only 20.8% of the population, according to the latest Eurostat data. The trend is particularly pronounced in southern Europe, with 9 out of 10 rural regions in the EU showing negative rates of natural population growth between 2015 and 2020 (Eurostat, 2023). 

As a result, the future social and economic fabric of these societies is fraying, undermining their viability and resilience. The effects of the rural exodus have altered the composition of the population, with a high proportion of people over the age of 60 remaining in rural areas, leading to high levels of vulnerability, disruption of local livelihoods as well as environmental consequences such as desertification and loss of biodiversity (Cáceres-Feria et al., 2021). With the aging of the population and the decline in birth rates, further problems emerge, particularly in relation to the decrease in the working-age population and gender imbalances (Cáceres-Feria et al., 2021).   

Beyond the immediate community, the consequences of depopulation impact the broader cultural plurality and the unique heritage (Álvarez Lorente et al., 2020). The survival of the diverse remote communities is vital to ensure the preservation of the distinct traditions and cultural practices that have developed due to remoteness (Álvarez Lorente et al., 2020). Overcoming the problem of rural depopulation is not just a matter of local concern but a societal imperative essential for the conservation of cultural diversity and the fostering of sustainable development.

This article explores the wider implications of rural out-migration. It identifies possible responses by examining the island of Antikythera, one of the smallest and most isolated islands in the Aegean Sea. The island is around 20 square kilometers in size and lies between Crete and the Peloponnese (Daglio & Kousidi, 2021). The municipality of Antikythera is one of the smallest in Greece, with 68 permanent residents registered in 2011 and only 39 in 2021 (Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2023). There is a threat of desertification of the island. The local community is composed of a small group of mostly elderly people. This might lead to an island that once played an important role in Greek history turning into a ghost community (Savoglou & Kopana, 2023). The need to address this demographic challenge is vital for the preservation of Antikythera, its economic and social life, as well as its cultural and historical heritage.

The main objective of this paper is to explore whether circular economy practices may aid Antikythera on its journey to repopulation. Firstly, it looks at the current conditions and challenges faced by local residents. Secondly, it examines and critically assesses the measures taken to date to address the decline in the number of permanent residents. Thirdly, it explores whether circular practices can aid the creation of sustainable economic activity and employment opportunities on Antikythera, attracting families and young people to relocate there.

The Case of Antikythera

Historical Context of Antikythera

The island of Antikythera, known in ancient times as Aegilia or Aigilios and later as Cerigotto, has a rich history. It was an important and coveted naval base for various civilisations due to its strategic location at the crossroads of the open sea and the Aegean Sea (Johnston et al., 2012). Historically, the island has been unevenly populated, experiencing waves of settlement and demographic desertification (Johnston et al., 2012). The geographical isolation of the island meant that it was often abandoned for various reasons, making it a place of exile and shelter for political and economic refugees, as well as for hunters and pirates (Bevan et al., 2008).

The influence and interest of the Cretan cities in the land have been evident since the Minoan era when they fought at times for its control. However, the island has ties with the neighbouring island of Kythera, as evidenced by the name Cerigotto, which was linked to the name of Kythera, Cerigo, during the Venetian period (Bevan & Conolly, 2013). Throughout history, the island was under Venetian, Ottoman and British rule before being incorporated into the Greek state in 1864. 

Archaeological findings indicate that the first signs of civilisation date back to the Neolithic and Bronze Age, in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC (Bevan & Conolly, 2013). The island was visited by seasonal hunters of migratory birds (Bevan & Conolly, 2013).  Settlements, with links to the surrounding ancient cities of Crete and Kythera became more permanent in the 3rd and 2nd century BC (Bevan & Conolly, 2013). In the later Hellenistic period, the island saw a lot of piracy, as evidenced by the existence of the famous fortress of Kastro, with its large defensive walls (Bevan & Conolly, 2013). However, the pillaging of the island by the Romans in 69-67 BC led to a decline in the island's population until much later (Fouseki & Alexopoulos, 2019). During the Byzantine period, monks sought refuge on the island for religious contemplation and isolation (Bevan et al, 2008). In the 5th and 6th centuries, the island was again settled by small villages and the larger town of Potamos (Bevan et al., 2008).  

In modern history, the island has been used as a place of exile for political figures and even economic refugees (Bevan et al, 2008).  Historical evidence suggests that the last settlement of the island by Cretan families took place from the 18th to the 20th century; the population grew due to refugees, reaching up to 800-1000 inhabitants for a few years during the Greek War of Independence (Bevan & Hasset, 2019; Fouseki & Alexopoulos, 2019). It retained a significant population that moved from Crete after it joined the Greek state in 1846, while Crete remained under Ottoman rule until the beginning of the 20th century (Bevan & Conolly, 2013). After the Second World War, the population declined sharply due to the harsh living conditions caused by naval operations off the coast and the relocation of the Cretan population by the German forces to prevent them from assisting the Allied forces (Bevan et al., 2008). Until the 1970s, the island was used as a place of political exile (Fouseki & Alexopoulos, 2019), while the permanent population of the island gradually declined.

The State of Depopulation on Antikythera

The population of Antikythera began to decline significantly in the mid-20th century, with opportunities for residents to emigrate to other Greek cities and even Australia (Bevan & Conolly, 2013). In the past, the island was home to a vibrant community engaged in agriculture and fishing, important activities for the prosperity of the population.  However, living on a remote island can be very challenging due to the lack of basic infrastructure and services that are readily available in more metropolitan communities. This gradual exodus has left behind an ageing population and led to the decline or disappearance of certain primary occupations, resulting in a lack of basic services for the remaining residents.  The current population amounts to only 39 permanent residents (Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2023), with local testimonies of less than 17 inhabitants during the harsh winter months (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024). The figure, however, reaches 200-300 inhabitants during the summer period (Fouseki & Alexopoulos, 2019), with other sources claiming up to 500 Municipality of Kythera, n.d.). The island's inhabitants live in several scattered localities, the largest of which is the settlement of Potamos (Fouseki & Alexopoulos, 2019). 

The small, predominantly elderly population that remains on the island today is marked by a notable absence of young people (Fouseki & Alexopoulos, 2019).  With rare exceptions, such as the local rural doctor, police officers and other temporary civil servants, the permanent population is over sixty years old and celibate (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024; Myrtsioti, 2008).  In fact, one of the main problems of the island is that no family has settled on the island for many years, leaving little hope of maintaining life on the island. In 2018 there was a sign of hope when a family with young children decided to move to the island. (Holy Metropolis of Kythera and Antikythera, 2018). The parents, originally from Antikythera, decided to move back to the island from Athens to give their children the chance to experience life on the island (Evaggelodimou, 2018).  This move led to the reopening of the island's public primary school, which had been closed for almost thirty years, with the appointment of a new teacher (Lifo Newsroom, 2019; Evaggelodimou, 2018).  

A few years later, however, the family was forced to move to the neighboring island of Kythera, which has a larger community, so that the children could continue their education at the secondary level (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024).  Unfortunately, the infrastructure on the island, in particular the school, which was renovated in 2000 with private funding for the purposes of the activities of the Hellenic Ornithological Society (Hellenic Ornithological Society, n.d.), is not sufficient to provide educational services that go beyond the elementary school. Furthermore, the establishment of a secondary school, which would require more teachers to be sent to the island, is not possible at this time. Furthermore, the establishment of a secondary school, which would require more teachers to be sent to the island, is not possible at this time. At the moment there is another family with young children living temporarily on the island, that of the doctor who works at the local medical station on the island (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024).

Specific Challenges of Life on Antikythera

Life on Antikythera is characterized by a number of challenges for the permanent residents. The geographical isolation has not been fully resolved by the ferries that operate between the various ports, resulting in infrequent transport links and difficult access to the Greek mainland (Pournara, 2014). For many years, residents have expressed a sense of insecurity and uncertainty about the island's connection to the mainland (Pournara, 2014), claiming that the island's remoteness undermines the quality of services provided and even makes unpredictable the supply of food. The increase in gas prices has affected the ferry industry, contributing to greater insecurity for Antikythera's residents, as government subsidies were insufficient to cover contracts with ferry companies (Manolas, 2007). Similarly, access to the island by speedboat has been deemed financially unviable due to the distance of the island from the main port of Piraeus and the bad weather conditions, especially in winter, which would make sailing impossible (Manolas, 2007).

Access to the island by air is also problematic. The nearest commercial airport is located on the island of Kythera, making it difficult to reach. In addition, there aren't many direct flights to the mainland, especially in winter, and the weather doesn't always allow flights to take off (Manolas, 2007). Despite this, the government offers subsidized tickets for permanent residents at a price of 47 euros, which is still a considerable amount to pay (Manolas, 2007).   

Since the 1980s, efforts have been made to improve the island's infrastructure. The government has subsidised a number of projects to improve its accessibility and infrastructure, resulting in the creation of a new port, an electricity plan, a heliport and the improvement of the roads linking smaller settlements to the main village of Potamos (Tsavaropoulos & Harhalakis, n.d.). However, the heliport is only used for emergencies, such as urgent medical transport (Municipality of Kythera, n.d.). Efforts are also made to ensure that essential services, such as a doctor, are always available, but this has not been successful as the island still relies on rural doctors with short appointments (Pournara, 2014; Mirasgentis, 2018).

Despite the development projects of recent years, the island's infrastructure still needs to be improved, and access to health care is limited. As with many small and remote Greek islands, the health centre is not equipped to deal with serious cases. They would require transfer to hospitals in neighbouring towns on larger islands (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024). In addition, there are currently no educational facilities on Antikythera, as there are no children among permanent residents. As a result, it has been difficult for new families to make the island their home. Potamos, the island's main village, provides the basics, such as a police station and two cafe-tavernas. They serve by appointment and are open mainly in summer.  One of the cafes is also a mini-market and the island's post office (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024; Municipality of Kythera, n.d.).    

The local authorities have made consistent efforts to ensure that the islands are well connected to ferry services to a number of Greek ports and that there is continuous sailing throughout the year, with an additional ferry added in 2018 (Ministry of Maritime, 2018). Residents acknowledged that these efforts had a significant impact on their quality of daily life, minimizing problems with supply and the feeling of isolation, as it is their only link to the outside world (Pournara, 2014; Savoglou & Kopana, 2024). However, the captain of one of the most consistent sailing lines has recently retired (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024). Combined with the harsh weather conditions, the difficult geology of the port of Antikythera and the uncertainty of the continuation of contracts with ferry companies pose a big challenge (Peloponnisos Newsroom, 2024). When asked about their daily struggles, local residents noted that a lack of supply or a day without power is still part of normal life, and they have learned to live with it (Kriti Simera, 2022). 

Overall, this situation has further diminished possible economic opportunities on the island, which mainly included traditional agricultural, fishing and livestock activities (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024). The island remains vulnerable and dependent on external supplies. In addition, the rugged terrain and harsh weather conditions, with constant strong winds, complicate daily life and make it difficult for residents to be self-sufficient.

Analysis of Repopulation Measures 

A number of stakeholders, including the government, the Church and civil society organisations, are involved in combating Antikythera's depopulation. The issue of Antikythera has been increasingly debated in recent years. 

In 2018, the Church, in particular the Holy Metropolis of Kythera and Antikythera, initiated and supported initiatives aimed at attracting new residents to the area. The Metropolis of Kythera and Monemvasia, in collaboration with the municipality and the local community, decided to offer housing and monthly payments of 500 euros during the first three years to encourage the resettlement of five large families (Mitropolis, 2018). The financial support was provided by Athens SYN-ENOSIS, a non-profit organisation established by the Greek shipping industry. The first family that moved to the island as a beneficiary of this programme became a reason for the reopening of the island's primary school. The remaining four families were due to move when the necessary housing units were built, as there were no available houses on the island at the time (Lifo Newsroom, 2019).  The expectation was that these families once successfully resettled, would be involved in agricultural, livestock, fishing, and bee-keeping activities (Mitropolis, 2018).

This programme gave hope to the local community and attracted considerable media attention and social media engagement. However, the publicity generated by the news coverage, coupled with the lack of clarity on the requirements of the initiative, led to the spread of misinformation and a spike in telephone inquiries from potential applicants (Lifo Newsroom, 2019). It prompted the municipality to issue a statement clarifying that the initiative was not currently operational and was not an open invitation to all families (Mitropolis, 2018).  Similarly, the websites of the municipalities of Kythera and Antikythera continue to carry disclaimers discouraging people from contacting them about the programme (Municipality of Kythera, n.d.)

Practical Challenges of Implementation

It has become clear that the programme was not as seamless as it first appeared. In addition to the many practical challenges that have yet to be resolved, the media attention received, both in Greece and abroad, raised expectations beyond its actual potential. The local administration indicated that the proposed resettlement initiative for Antikythera is in the planning stage and has yet to be implemented (Lifo Newsroom, 2019). On the positive side, the programme's focus on the relocation of large families with children is logical, as it would help to sustain life on the island and facilitate the establishment of educational services and the improvement of infrastructure.

The practical challenge associated with the resettlement programme is the construction of the houses for the new families. The lack of clearly delineated residential areas on the island makes the approval process, overseen by the Planning and Forestry Departments, lengthy and complex (Lifo Newsroom, 2019). The inclusion of the island in the Natura 2000 environmental protection network, a European Union initiative to protect biodiversity, imposes environmental restrictions that may result in further delays and obstacles to the construction and development of the housing for this programme (European Environment Agency, n.d., Lifo Newsroom, 2019). Natura 2000 ensures the protection of unique habitats and species. It requires that any new construction undergo a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment to ensure it will not cause disturbance and damage to the habitats (European Environment Agency, n.d.).

Moreover, Antikythera's existing infrastructure is insufficient to accommodate a sudden increase in population due to limited healthcare facilities, essential services such as water supply and waste management and a lack of educational institutions. Enhancing these facilities would require a substantial investment of time and financial resources, which presents a significant barrier to resettlement. Furthermore, the challenging weather conditions, particularly during the winter months, become an additional logistical challenge, emphasising the importance of developing resilient infrastructure that can withstand the local weather.

The media coverage raised expectations of this resettlement program without reflecting the complex local situation. This created misunderstandings that created a wave of disappointment among potential settlers.

Possibilities for Repopulation

A circular economy model towards island resources

The few permanent residents left and the barren landscape of Antikythera, typical to the Aegean Sea, do not inspire much hope for the preservation of life. In recent years, the situation has become more dramatic. One example was the closure of the school after the only relocated family left the island. On the one hand, the closure of local schools is a negative factor for the local community, as it eliminates hope for growth (Barakat, 2015). On the other hand, it is the wider lack of basic services and inaccessibility that pushes a community into oblivion (Barakat, 2015).  The reality is that both perspectives highlight the importance of essential services to sustain life in rural areas. To empower society, it is necessary to strengthen its resilience and self-sustainability.

Initiatives to promote circular economy models are presented as a unique opportunity to revitalise rural regions and ensure self-sufficiency. As described by the United Nations Environmental Assembly, the key objective is to enhance sustainable development by reducing the use of natural resources and waste production (UNIDO, 2020; UNGA, 2019). This approach involves designing and utilizing products and materials in a way that they can be reused and recycled to their full potential through symbiotic processes that mimic natural progression and evolution, breaking the traditional linear chain (Girard, 2014). In this way, they are kept in the economy for as long as possible. The generation of waste, especially hazardous waste, is avoided or minimized and the environment is regenerated, while greenhouse gas emissions are prevented or reduced (Girard, 2014). For an economy such as that of Athikythera, cut off from major urban centres and relying on external supplies for its survival, the circular economy model can make a significant contribution to the resilience of the economy and the local community. 

Agricultural sector 

Given the specificities of the climate and the relatively poor soil, the implementation of circular economy practices can offer significant benefits but faces many limitations. The adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, promoting a zero-kilometre goal where possible, in other words relying as much as possible on local production, will increase the resilience of the community (Girard, 2014).  Methods such as crop rotation and the use of traditional farming methods adapted to local needs, as well as composting as a symbiotic measure, can improve the quality of the soil and the environment (Girard, 2014). In particular, the cultivation of crops that thrive on the island, such as indigenous plants, olive trees, grapes, aromatic plants and the production of honey, can be enhanced and developed as an opportunity to promote agriculture and create new jobs (UNIDO, 2020).

Renewable energy

The island's geographical location and climate offer significant opportunities for the exploitation of renewable energy sources to increase the island's self-sufficiency and attract the attention of the private sector to invest and operate on the island. The installation of wind turbines and solar panels for energy production can support the local community in many ways. In particular, it can provide a solution to the current problems of frequent power cuts and high costs due to its inaccessibility. In addition, renewable energy sources can support the development of the island's agriculture and provide an incentive for businesses on the island to explore circular technology. However, these projects will have to account for Natura 2000 and the directive of preserving the natural biodiversity.

Leveraging natural features for development

The island's natural features and biodiversity can provide opportunities for development. There have been initiatives by the state and national organisations to implement programmes. For example, the Greek Ornithological Society, recognising the island's important geographical position at the end of the Balkan Peninsula, has established the Antikythera Bird Observatory to monitor the wide variety of migratory bird species that fly between Europe and Africa (Hellenic Ornithological Society, n.d.). Since 2008, the organization has built a local hostel to accommodate volunteers and partners on various projects (Hellenic Ornithological Society, n.d.). There can be more opportunities for research on biodiversity and even ecological tourism.

The untouched environment of the island, far from the destructive consequences of human activity, provided a unique opportunity for the establishment of a climate observatory and research station. It was done under the coordination and guidance of the National Observatory of Athens for the development of new environmental engineering and technology in the context of natural sciences (NOA, n.d.). The project, called PANGEA (Panhellenic Geophysical Observatory of Antikythera), aims to take advantage of the uninterrupted observation of weather phenomena on the island to advance environmental and climate research in the Mediterranean, a region where climate plays a unique role (NOA, n.d.). The project will develop an open access framework to bring together different stakeholders to promote sustainable development and strengthen local capacities. There is EU support for the implementation of this project as it is part of the Horizon and has received funding from the European Investment Bank (CORDIS, n.d.). It is currently underway as the public procurement process has already commenced. This project is an important step for the development of the island (National Observatory of Athens, 2024). The attitude of the local community towards the permanent establishment of a research station on the island is very positive. It holds the promise of creating additional employment opportunities to attract new residents, as the station will require permanent staff (Mayor of Kythera and Antikythera, 2024). It is seen as a concrete solution to resolve the problem of depopulation (Mayor of Kythera and Antikythera, 2024). 

Finally, the archaeological importance of the island has contributed to its international recognition, as its strategic location has allowed it to play a significant role in many historical periods. The 1901 discovery of the Antikythera Mechanism, the first analogue computer, in a shipwreck off Anthikythera is considered one of the most important archaeological discoveries (Fouseki & Alexopoulos, 2019). In 2014, the Greek State, with the support of various organisations and businesses, began a comprehensive study of the wreck, led by Greek and Swiss archaeological experts in collaboration with the University of Geneva (ESAG, 2023). This has contributed to the field of underwater archaeological and technical progress (Ministry of Culture, n.d). 

Archaeological research has also focused on the northern part of the island, where the ancient walled city of Aigila and its castle once stood (Savoglou & Kopana, 2024). The city played an important role in the Hellenistic period, as it had links with the Cretan town of Phallasarna, which had a strong pirate presence. The research has been carried out since 2000 under the direction of the archaeologist Aris Tsavaropoulos and has produced significant artifacts. However, the sites have not been explored to their full potential (Tsavaropoulos & Fragou, 2013). There have been proposals to create archaeological parks open to the public, which would extend the tourist season and provide additional employment (Tsavaropoulos & Fragou, 2013). The parks would be tourist attractions and could showcase the natural beauty of the island if combined with various hiking trails around the island. In addition, the parks would provide unique educational opportunities for students and academic institutions that could potentially fund the research (Tsavaropoulos & Fragou, 2013).

As described above, the scientific and historical interest of Antikyhtera, the ongoing research projects and the archaeological site can become opportunities for the development of the local community through the collaboration of the public and private sectors. The island offers a great opportunity for educational institutions and universities to create training programs and field visits for students and teachers. Such initiatives could boost the local economy and the development of the island.

Community-based tourism

Arguably, the tourism sector is a promising field for the island of Antikyhtera. The summer season sees a considerable number of tourists for the size of the local community. Although tourism can appear as an activity that is disruptive and harmful to the residents and the environment, a community-based model for tourism development can be transformed into an opportunity for sustainable development and prosperity for all (Cáceres-Feria et al., 2021).  

The community-based approach involves local people in the planning and decision-making process. It focuses on showcasing the unique features of the areas, such as history and natural beauty (Cáceres-Feria et al., 2021). The archaeological parks are seen as an opportunity to create an alternative form of tourism that would not be disruptive to the environment and the local community. The proposal included active community participation, with the local residents involved in the management of the parks (Tsavaropoulos & Fragou, 2013). This would help build community trust in the program and strengthen their connection to the land and cultural heritage (Tsavaropoulos & Fragou, 2013).

Beyond specific projects, community-based tourism can involve the creation of small, locally-owned businesses that stimulate the local economy, some of which attract new residents. For example, guided tours to the natural and historical attractions on the island, such as the lighthouse, and activities such as birdwatching or marine exploration. The island has a municipal hostel and some rental accommodation for the summer months. Still, it could be beneficial to explore alternative and more environmentally conscious solutions for accommodation, such as camping and zero-footprint huts.

Conclusion

The article has explored the historic routes of depopulation on the island of Antikythera. It analysed the current efforts to repopulate it, which have so far been unsuccessful due to the premature announcement in the media and logistical limitations such as lack of infrastructure and housing. However, there is hope on the horizon for the revival of this community. Implementing circular economy initiatives can increase the resilience of rural communities and create a closer, more respectful relationship with the environment. While the article suggests a way forward for the island's development, more research is needed on the appropriate course of action. Despite the significant challenges, there are important initiatives taking place on the island already dedicated to scientific research and technological advancement. Some of them are still in their early stages, but they appear to be promising in attracting new residents to Antikythera through the creation of new employment opportunities and the development of alternative forms of tourism, such as community-based and eco-tourism. 

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